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Cancer & cancer information, oncogenes, proto-oncogene

CANCER:

 

Cancer arises because certain cells within a given tissue escape from normal growth controls, replicate more frequently, and migrate to sites distant from the parent tissue where further uncontrolled replication occurs. Such escape is facilitated by the accumulation of mutations within a cancerous cell as a result of the innate and environmental carcinogens to which cellular DNA is subjected. If errors generated in coding DNA are not repaired, these will be transmitted to the daughter strands as the cell divides. Clearly, mutations will arise more rapidly if external mutagenic stimuli are increased, or if the cell is defective in DNA repair systems.

 

ONCOGENES:

This term refers to a gene which has been mutated to facilitate neoplastic growth. The normal function of such genes may be the synthesis of factors involved in growth control, the cell cycle or apoptosis. Oncogenes can be broadly divided into two groups, according to whether their oncogenic effect results from overactivity of a ‘proto-oncogene' or the loss of a ‘tumour suppressor' function.

 

Proto-Oncogene:

The majority of known oncogenes are components of signal transduction pathways in which mutations or the presence of increased copies of a gene result in overactivity, mimicking persistent growth factor stimulation. These include genes encoding receptors (e.g. erbB in breast carcinoma), cytoplasmic signalling moieties such as K-ras, and transcription factors such as c-myc (important in gastrointestinal tumours and leukaemias). A recently described class encode mitotic spindle binding proteins; mutation in these genes promote premature exit from anaphase, leading to incorrect chromosome segregation to daughter cells, and anaploidy. In animals, a number of tumours are caused by retroviruses which carry activated oncogenes, but to date this has not been shown to be a common mechanism in human cancer. Nevertheless, several human cancers are undoubtedly caused by infectious agents. Important examples include human papillomavirus E7 (which inappropriately phosphorylates pRB), leading to cervical carcinoma; herpesvirus 8 (which encodes a cyclin that drives the host cell through the G1-S checkpoint); and Epstein-Barr virus, responsible for Burkitt's lymphoma and nasopharyngeal carcinoma.

Tumor Suppressor genes tend to encode proteins whose normal function is to inhibit the cell cycle or to induce apoptosis to prevent transmission of uncorrectable DNA defects. Direct inhibitors of the cell cycle include pRB, illustrated in figure 1.15. Other tumor suppressor genes encode components of inhibitory growth factor-signaling pathways, particularly those of transforming growth factor (TGF)-β and its associated cytoplasmic signaling molecules such as Smad2 and Smad4 (which is the DPC4 ‘deleted in pancreatic carcinoma' gene). As noted in the previous section, neurofibromin encodes as Ras inhibitor which is mutated in neurofibromatosis. APC, the gene mutated in familial adenomatous  polyposis and 60% of sporadic colon  adenomas and carcinomas, is bought to operate as an oncogene by rendering cells less susceptible to apoptosis. P53, a key tumor suppressor gene, normally uses both mechanisms to override other signals which would otherwise stimulate cell proliferation; details of P53 activity are highlighted in figure 1.16. The importance fo P53 is illustrated by the fact that it is inactivated in over 50% of human tumors, including breast and colon carcinomas, and childhood leukaemias.

When an oncogene results from a mutation reducing the activity of a tumor suppressor, a single mutation usually is insufficient to generate oncogenic activity unless an additional mutation in activities the second copy of the gene. This ‘two-hit' model of tumorigenesis, developed by Knudson, is illustrated in figure 1.17. If, on the other hand, an oncogene results from over activity of a proto-oncogene, a mutation in only one of the two copies may be sufficient to promote tumorigenesis. This is also true in an important exception to the two-hit rule, in the case of the tumor suppressor gene P53, since mutation in only one allele may be sufficient to result in a biological effect. This reflects the operation of the protein as a tetramer, so abnormalities in any one of the subunits may derange its function.

By: DAVIDSON'S

Principles and Practice of Medicine

Eighteenth Edition

About the Author

ikramullah working in Health Department

I need help with deciding over paintball guns Proto slg ultralight or smart parts vibe?

thanks!!!

okay well those are 2 tottaly different guns

to start with one is 300 while the other is 170

Lets look at the gear u have right now, do u have a mask? hopper? tank? well first i would get this in this order!!

Mask- v-force grillz $70
hopper- invert halo too $70
tank- ninja 48/3000- $50

and then get ur gun so if u have 300 dollars u will have 110 left for a gun. I would save up another 50 and get an azodin blitz if u alreaddy have the gear i would look at getting a g4 instead of the proto slg.

If you have any more questions about paintball be happy to go to

www.techpb.com/forums/

Make an account and ask all the questions u would like

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